CHAPTER SEVEN
Using PSYCHODRAMA IN THE GROUP
Imagine that you have received some insult in public, perhaps a slap in the face, that makes your cheek burn whenever you think of it. The inner shock was so great that it blotted out all the details of this harsh incident, but some insignificant thing will instantly revive the memory of the insult, and the emotion will recur with redoubled violence . . . if you possess such sharp and easily aroused emotional material you will find it easy to transfer it to the stage and play a scene analogous to the experience you had in real life. Constantin Stanislovski (l969, p. 176) Stanislovski, the great Russian actor and director, knew the power of unfinished business and translated it into a powerful technique for getting the best performances out of his actors. Psychodrama has borrowed these methods and utilizes theatrical techniques, but applies them to real situations that are replayed as a means of bringing resolution to problems and issues not resolved. Psychodrama is based on the premise that drama occurs in everyday life. As a therapeutic approach it takes the creative acting ability inherent in everyone and applies it to the helping process. Psychodrama is a flexible and creative approach to problem solving that can be utilized in a variety of settings, such as educational, industrial, and therapeutic and could be used in the following modes, individual and group counseling, personal growth groups, leadership training, and mediation just to name a few. The Greek word drama, translates to "action or a thing done." A creative and therapeutic intervention that actualizes this meaning is Psychodrama. "Psychodrama can be defined, therefore, as the science which explores the truth by dramatic methods" (Moreno, l953). It was developed by the Romanian born Jacob Moreno at his clinic in Beacon, New York, in the early nineteen-twenties. Moreno felt that the stage could help patients actualize their problems by making them real and immediate, thus providing a concrete direction for change and wellness. According to Langley (l983) ". . . Psychodrama is directed towards emotional catharsis, while drama therapy does not necessarily demand deep emotional involvement" (p. 20). Moreno, like William Shakespeare, felt that ". . . all the world as a stage and all the men and women merely players" (As you like it); thus, Psychodrama developed as a natural method of actualizing situations in a realistic manner. Rationale for Using Psychodrama in Group Psychotherapy One of the aspects of helping that prompted Moreno to develop the theory and procedures of Psychodrama was the undemocratic aspect of therapy he found in Freud's approach. As the dominant theory at the time, the Psychoanalytic approach is a process whereby the helper interprets the behavior of the client as a means of bringing insight and change. Moreno felt that this approach stifled spontaneity. He felt that in a group it was better to get people to physically act out their problems, as opposed to talking about them. He noticed that this process not only activated the group, but helped those with problems better extract emotions far more realistically and with more clarity. Moreno taught that problems arise in society because people lose their spontaneity and become more anxious. He noticed that, when clients became more physically active, their anxiety was lowered. The differences between Moreno and Freud were expressed at a conference in Vienna in 1912 when Moreno told Freud (Corsini & Wedding, l989):
I start where you leave off. You meet people in the artificial setting of your office, I meet them on the street and in their home, in their natural surroundings. You analyze their dreams. I teach the people how to play God. (p. 458) Psychodrama's most important characteristic is its emphasis on spontaneity and creativity. Moreno noticed that anxiety decreased with the increase of spontaneity in a person's behavior. He found that in most spontaneous situations, there seem to be lower levels of thinking about self. To capitalize on this observation he used a stage where people could act out scenes from their inner world or past experiences. The goal was to lead them to an emotional catharsis. Reenacting situations through drama created tension, which Moreno (l953) felt was the most effective way of getting people to explore their attitudes. In his work, Moreno could see that tension, if channeled in the right direction, could lead to heightened awareness and sensory receptivity. The stage and drama was a simple mechanism to breach the dualism of reality and fantasy. The problem could be a real or even an imagined situation. It did not matter if the psychodramatic content were a past, present or future dilemma. As an approach to personal growth, problem solving, and group process, Psychodrama is attractive, because everyone can be involved. Involvement of the group members follows a set sequence: presenting a problem to act out (protagonist); assisting someone in the group working on an issue, by role playing someone from a past situation (auxiliary ego or as a double); or participating as a member of the audience. The double becomes a mirror for the protagonist by either providing support or acting as a voice. Some people have a hard time saying they are angry; thus, the double says it for them (e.g., "You are really pissing me off"). The double works at intensifying emotions and clarifying feelings and thoughts. The facilitator is the director, whose function is to assist in setting up the scenes and structuring the drama. The rest of the group serves as an audience who observes and offers feedback to the participants. By offering the group an opportunity to totally involve themselves in the process, Psychodrama is one of the most innovative and creative therapeutic approaches to resolving problems. It relies on group members to participate in each other's lives through acting out their thoughts and feelings, rather than just talking about them. It draws on everyone's need to play, as children enacting life. The drama is not limited by time, space, or even reality. Perls (1973) felt that by helping people recognize the relation between fantasy and reality: "We can make full use in therapy of fantasizing and all its increasing states of intensity towards actuality--a verbalized fantasy, or one which is written down, or one which is acted out as Psychodrama" (p. 86).
The Spirit, Soul and Conscious Self in the Psychodrama Process
Many of the tools and methods used in the Psychodrama process get the participants to focus beyond their conscious selves. Time and reality becomes relative and participants can use fantasy or even magic or spirit beings to help and support them. Moreno was very aware of the spiritual dimension that was often overlooked in the therapeutic process, yet terms like the "spirit" and "soul" are vague terms. What is the "spirit?" In his book, The Spiritual Universe: How Quantum Physics the Existence of the Soul, Fred Alan Wolf (l999) describes the spirit in metaphorical terms. He uses a violin string (matter or the body) that is plucked and vibrates. The vibrations (movement of the spirit) produces energy that cannot be seen, but it there and stays there long after normal eye sight or ears (conscious self) sense the vibration. Energy is infinite. "What is the soul?" The reflection of the vibrations is the soul in a vacuum in relationship to time. In that sense, Wolf stresses that the soul exists from the beginning into infinity. Like the reflection in a mirror, the soul is merely a reflection. The material embodiment of the soul is the conscious self. The main goal of the soul is to help the body survive in its material existence. In Psychodrama the spirit and soul can be actively engaged, in which either can assist, support, or teach the conscious self. From a transpersonal perspective:The goal of therapy is not that the person establish a strong and predictable self. The goal is that the person become flowing, flexible, responsive, and spontaneous: they move from the stasis to the process (Brazier (1995, p. 173).
Psychodrama From a Cross-Cultural Perspective: Spiritual Healing
The therapeutic benefit from dramatizing or acting out the inner and outer state of being, a core component of Psychodrama, is quite well known in a variety of cultures. It is even possible that Moreno's development of the psychodrama techniques came about as a process of going back to older rituals that formally characterized European culture. What Moreno did, can be argued, was to stylize his method to utilize acceptable dramatic expression and incorporate psychological beliefs concurrent with his time. In fact, Moreno (l959) was influenced by the Shamanistic tradition of First Nations people of North America. Hence, the dramatic stage fused with Humanistic psychotherapy and ritualistic healing processes.
In the same context of Moreno's philosophy is the use of psychodrama, along with other methods, in other cultures to help rid people of alienation, depression, some psychosomatic illnesses, and a host of other problems. The psychological literature is filled with the therapeutic benefits of Santaria [among Hispanic peoples] and Voodoo [among Haitians] to help people feel better about themselves, be more productive, and develop a closer, more positive, relationship with their family and community. In China for example, illnesses not only has their causes in the physical being, but in the spiritual and psychological realms as well. That is, illness, to be treated properly, must included healing of the spirit too. This is one of the basis of the centuries old Chinese Medicine, which incidentally has not only been grudgingly accepted by the Western Medical establishment, but by government health departments (e.g. the B.C. Ministry of Health now accepts certain practices of Chinese Medicine as a legitimate Medicare expense). In a study in which dramatic acting out among Hong Kong Chinese to deal with "possession syndrome", it was found that:
...the powerful psychological effect on the audience of the mythological dramatis personae entering the stage of the Chinese popular opera through the so called "ghost door", and relates a tradition of actors being possessed by the spirits they impersonate (Jilek, l988, p. 92). Among Salish spirit dancers, from the coast of the Pacific Northwest, each repeats the first possession during the annual winter ceremony. By re-entering a trance like state, there is a re-experiencing of the spirit power acquired originally in an altered state of consciousness induced during the initiation ceremony. As in the fashion that Moreno developed, ritualized movement helps the person feel in the present, exactly what they felt the first time. Not only does this reproduce a sense of well-being, but also reinforces the archetypes, or cultural energy sources, that empower. Hence, the winter spirit dance is very much in the keeping of positive therapeutic methods that are proven to be helpful and culturally relevant. Consider Jilek description of what happens in the spirit dance (l988):
Some dancers are experienced virtuosi in achieving such a state; they work themselves up with loud hyperventilation and vehement commotion, to pass into song and dance when dozens of deer-hid drums strike in. The dancer's spirit finds its dramatized expression in dance steps, tempo, movements, miens and gestures: in the sneaking pace, then flying leaps of the ferocious yelling "warrior," or in the swaying trot of the plump, sadly weeping "bear mother" in the rubber-like reptilian writhing of the "double headed serpent" as well as in the desperate wailing and gesticulation of the "mother seeking her child"; just as in the "lizard" who sheds tears over his devoured offspring or in the mighty "whale" who grabs smaller fish (p. 92). Furthermore, Psychodrama and the winter spirit dance include the following characteristics. Both are cathartic, since it leads people to a point of expressing their feelings and fears, while at the same time Binding strength in the experience. Clearly the dramatic format, the group support, and the careful direction, that the spirit dance occurs in is very similar to Psychodrama. In the psychodrama, there are specific roles and methods, with its protagonist, auxiliary egos, director and audience. Psychodrama is very specific, following a set pattern, in which everyone involved has roles to play. In the same way, the winter spirit dance is choreographed, with specific rhythms and actions. Finally, both need the group setting, in which there are participators and an audience. Everything is controlled and involve a safe setting with a facilitator (director and ritualist).
...in the spirit dance participants the dramatis personae of Moreno's clinical psychodrama: protagonists [the dancers], auxiliary egos [babysitters or assistants], director [ritualist], and group [audience] (Jilek, l988, p. 93).
A very important aspect of the comparison of the winter spirit ceremony and psychodrama was not to say there were a like, since clearly, psychodrama is a psychological technique, albeit, transpersonal in many respects, it is not a spiritual ritual. One has to be extremely careful in over analyzing the winter spirit dance. The significance of Jilek's discussion is to demonstrate that this and many other First Nations' practices have a method and philosophy that is complex and people in the larger society need to recognize, respect and honor what is being done. This is the beauty in Black Elk's dream of the return of traditional beliefs and practices. In addition, since this ritual and many others clearly are beneficial and thus should be a part of cross-cultural counselling with First Nations people or other people with traditions that can clearly be therapeutic. In discussing the positive effects of the spirit dance "...clinical experience...would suggest that [the]..."Indian treatment" compares favourably with Western therapeutic or correctional approaches" (Jilek, l988, p. 97).
The Relationship of Psychodrama and the Transpersonal Approach The Psychodrama model is quite adaptable and can be used with other theoretical modalities, including the Transpersonal approach. The similarities in the theoretical orientation of Psychodrama and Transpersonal are the values placed on spontaneity, immediacy, catharsis and the search for wholeness. In Psychodrama the self "... emerges from role-clarification expression and movement" (Orcutt, 1977, p. 98). This occurs through experimenting with different roles as the protagonist increases awareness and provides a more concrete and acceptable style of being in the world. In the Transpersonal approach, not only is the person searching for greater fulfillment, he or she is trying to find how to transcend attachments and self-indulgence. In essence, to re-connect to nature and to learn to live in harmony with others. The flexibility of Psychodrama in helping to break through the impasse through experiencing differing roles, polarities and increase one's awareness of personal boundaries and a greater reliance on self. The plots and roles in Psychodrama reflect the experience of the protagonist rather than the director or anyone else. Paradoxically, while the protagonist projects the self onto the dramatic script, the goal is to liberate the self from it. Healing occurs through catharsis brought about by the bond (tele) between the director and the protagonist. The role of the facilitator is to be challenging, empathic and creative, while attempting to focus the participants' healing power back to themselves. As in the Transpersonal approach, methods such as dream work, imagery, art, body work, and role playing can be used. Psychodrama has a very clear role for the members of the group in each phase of the process (e.g., warm-up, action, and sharing). The rules of Psychodrama are structured to the point where it varies little (e.g., protagonist, director, auxiliary ego, and double). In the opening, the director in the Psychodrama warms up the audience to bring out the drama. It could appear that a Psychodrama of some past event recreates what happened, yet no matter how much the protagonist tries to go back, it is only a projection from where he or she is now. Theoretical Concepts of Psychodrama Psychodrama, unlike other forms of therapeutic intervention, is able to immerse all of the group members in each other's issues. As a dramatic recreation, spontaneity, immediacy, tele and catharsis are usually present. These concepts are not only crucial to the success of a Psycho- drama, but are also seen as goals that each person can work towards as a means of achieving a full life. In Psychodrama it is assumed that everyone has the "key" and the means in bringing about resolution. What the Psychodrama is focusing on, according to Goldman and Morrison (1984), is for the person:There are four major aspects of the person that the Psychodrama, from the Transpersonal approach, deals with.. . . to see and feel the truth of his [or her] own actions . . . for it is essential that the protagonist be aware of feelings, thoughts, and actions. The link between the affective and the cognitive is necessary for the protagonist to integrate the session . . . (p. 32)
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Cognitive processes: (e.g., "How are you thinking about yourself vis-ý-vis the problem and environment?"); |
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Affective processes: (e.g., "How do you feel about the problem, people concerned, and your relationship to them?"); |
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Action processes: (e.g., "How is your behavior blocking problem resolution in the group?"); |
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Spiritual processes: (e.g. ("How does your spiritual emptiness distance you from your connections with the cosmos and all living things). |
Figure 7.1 graphically demonstrates Moreno's principle of moving the group from anxiety to spontaneity with warm-up activities. The anxious person tends to be unimaginative, while the spontaneous person tends to be more creative. Notice that the spontaneous person does not separate the conscious from the unconscious, it is one continuum. When the person stops to separate the conscious from the unconscious by asking questions, anxiety develops. There is no questioning about behavior in the spontaneous person, just action. The director uses all means available to encourage the group to be more expressive. Since many people are fearful of spontaneity, perhaps because it means a loss of control, the director encourages participants to experiment with different roles. The aim is to help group members learn to be as spontaneous as they were as children. What group members discover is that the:
. . . psychodramatic process tends to facilitate the expansion of a person's role repertoire so that everyone can learn more precisely in action what it is like to be another person in another role. Being this way in Psychodrama can help resolve a personal problem, but a more general impact can be the enhancement of communication and compassion in the larger society. (Yablonsky, l981, p. 25) Immediacy In Psychodrama the addressing of problems in the "here and now" is vital to spontaneity. To be in the "here and now" is to be able to relate to a problem or issue in an immediate manner or "it is you and me, here, now." This is important in actualizing issues, feelings, and thoughts, because as a ". . . process the manner in which the individual responds internally to the content of the Psychodrama is how he acts in life" (Goldman & Morrison, l984, p. 40). The benefits of communicating in an immediate manner are numerous. I have found that in a group immediacy promotes direct communication, helping to resolve immediate tensions, discomforts, or faulty perceptions. It offers a means of dealing with incompatibilities by clarifying issues around trust and creating a climate of honesty and mutuality. When this happens it is less likely that people will act in a dependent manner. Tele Tele is the process of two-way flow or transference of feelings and energy between two participants in a Psychodrama. Moreno's motto of Psychodrama is also a good description of tele, which is:
. . . a meeting of two: eye to eye, face to face, and when you are near I will tear your eyes out and place them instead of mine, and you will tear my eyes out and will place them instead of yours, then I will look at you with your eyes and you will look at me with mine. (p. 280) In most situations, tele occurs between the director and protagonist, but it can occur between any of the participants in the Psychodrama. It is a crucial ability for the director to be able to have a sense of the protagonist's emotions. For example, if the protagonist is feeling isolated, through tele the director realizes this and whispers to the auxiliary ego to say, "You are all alone." Tele heightens the feelings of the protagonist, by bringing him or her into a more spontaneous mode. Tele is like empathy, but rather than one person's feeling what the other feels, both feel each other. With tele, not only does the protagonist feel it, but so does the director. Zerka Moreno describes it as the sense on the part of the protagonist (Goldman & Morrison, 1984) that for:
. . . [the director to] be genuinely with him, the director is free to move again into a more objective position, hence he can survey the needs of the protagonist and those of other group members. The delicate balance of the subjective-objective relationship is one of the most crucial sine qua non demanded of the director for effective achievement of his [her] task. (pp. 90-91) Catharsis According to the Greek philosopher, Aristotle, a catharsis is ". . . defined as an experience of release that occurs when a long-standing inner state mobilizes and finds its outlet in action" (Kellermann, l984, p. 1). Catharsis occurs when feelings that have been stored and localized in the body, mind, and spirit of the person are released. It is a process that includes the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral. Every aspect of a person's physiological self (respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous, intestinal) and psychological self (communication, information processing, and imagination) is affected in a catharsis. It is used "... to induce participants to purge themselves mentally from whatever morbid content was stored inside them" (Kellermann, l984, p. 2). Ginn (1973) says that catharsis plays a pivotal role, for it:
. . . is both the main event as well as the aim of action in the Psychodrama. For Moreno, every element in operation in a Psychodrama works towards achievement of catharsis that affects not only the protagonist, but the audience, director, doubles, and auxiliary egos(p.12). Emotions do not develop and reside within the person as static stages that occur as different experiences happen, but occur more like a "river" that flows. Past, present, and future experiences are present simultaneously in the emotions. As a "river," emotions can become a trickle or a raging torrent that continuously threatens to "overflow." When emotions do erupt there is release and relief. Kellermann (1984) states that, when catharsis occurs, it comes like:
. . . a sudden tidal wave of illumination, an explosion of energies finding an outlet...and when it comes, there is a sense of inward unfolding of a kind of 'oceanic feeling,' followed by small ripples of release, which are experienced over a long period of time. (p. 5) While logic is quite straightforward, emotions can neither be induced nor inhibited, but can only be allowed to emerge in their own time and place. This happens because there is a desire for resolution, a need for freedom of expression, and a spontaneity that occurs because of the action. In the Psychodrama the catharsis is a desired goal of the drama, for it is the high point or the most dramatic part of the drama. It is a catalyst where conflicts are personalized into action. The catharsis is not limited to the protagonist, but can occur in the Psychodrama in the double, auxiliary ego, audience, and the director (Karp, l968). According to Blatner (l985), there are four separate categories of catharsis: abreaction, integration, inclusion, and significance or spiritual catharsis. The catharsis of abreaction is the emotion that comes with a ". . . recognition of feeling that has previously been disowned" (p. 160). There is intense feeling in an abreaction, which must be followed by a catharsis of integration. This type of catharsis comes when the protagonist has an awareness of previous experiences and former roles. Here there is an integration of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, which produces a sense of relief and expansion. The third type, catharsis of inclusion, is the recognition that there is a need to love and belong. The sense of belonging, acceptance, and the realization that the group can be influenced by a person are very validating. The fourth category, spiritual catharsis, is the experience of feeling a oneness with God or the cosmos. Blatner (1985) suggests that recognizing these four categories of catharsis reinforces the:
. . . multi-dimensional and multi- leveled process. Over emphasis on just one area, such as the cliché practice of "getting in touch with anger" can be misguided. Individualism should be addressed in its fullness, and, indeed, this is part of the educational task of therapy. (p. l64) Five Instruments of the Psychodrama The Stage The stage is the "world" where the action takes place that allows the characters and the audience to interact in a free and flowing manner. There do not have to be props, although they can help create a realistic atmosphere. The notion that a stage does not have to be elaborate to evoke reality is not a new idea in drama. The innovative play by the Italian, Luigi Pirandello (l943), Six Characters in Search of an Author, symbolically used only a few chairs and tables to create reality. He said that the stage is a place where fantasy and reality are joined and it does not depend on what is concrete, for on the stage as in life:
Director The director is the facilitator of the action, whose main task is to loosen up the participants, prepare them for the drama, shape the scenes, and structure the elements of the process. The director is continually helping the protagonist to define his or her purpose and goal for bringing about resolution in the drama. The director uses auxiliary egos, as projections of the protagonist, to act as extensions of the director. Rather than the director creating tension, the auxiliary egos create it. The director may whisper to an auxiliary ego to raise his or her voice at a given time or offer advice. During the drama the director must be sensitive to the feelings of the players and audience. It is vital that the director fosters a state of intensity and excitement by ensuring that everyone is prepared through the warm up. He must also ensure that there are open channels of communication among the participants. The key is good timing, rhythm, and the ability to keep the participants in character. When resistance develops the director must be able to use that energy to further expression. In Psychodrama there is a tremendous trust in the ability of the participants to create the right mood and identify with their roles. The Protagonist The protagonist is the star and producer of the drama, identifying the story, characters, time, place, and actions in the scenes. A group member becomes the protagonist when he or she wants to spontaneously act out a situation which is totally subjective to the world of the protagonist. What is right or true is what the protagonist says it is, for he or she embodies norms. To do this the protagonist is encouraged to come face-to-face with the issue, acting it out rather than talking about it. It may seem that the best way to choose a protagonist is to see who wants to work on something, yet the selection of a protagonist must be chosen on the basis of whether the drama will benefit the group (Kumar & Treadwell, l986). It is not necessary that someone who is a "star" or active member of the group be the protagonist, for even the most isolated and quiet person can intensely focus the group. I have found that questioning potential protagonists, followed by confirming my selection with the group works best. Not only is it an effective method getting the person to make a commitment, but it brings the group into the selection process. For example, I may say to the potential protagonist, "It seems from what you said that you have a lot of deep feelings about this . . . Would you like to explore it further?" I would follow this with a question to the group, "Does anyone have any objections or comments about the selection of Francoise as the protagonist?" It is possible that there may be some objections from the group, and if there are, they should be dealt with immediately. Most often, objections occur when group members are perceived as monopolizing the group with their issues and problems, or when they are oblivious to what is obvious. Sometimes "problems," like a television rerun, become tiring to the group if they are presented again and again without resolution. According to Kumar and Treadwell (l986), there are six factors that affect the selection process. Each of these factors is influential in the selection process regardless of whether or not the protagonist volunteers. It should be remembered that not everyone desires, needs to be, or is a good choice as a protagonist. In each of the factors the director should consider the following criteria:. . . reality doesn't change: it can't change! It can't be other than what it is, because it is already fixed forever . . . ours is an immutable reality which should make you shudder when you approach us if you are really conscious of the fact that your reality is a mere transitory and fleeting illusion, taking this form today and that tomorrow, according to the conditions, according to your will, your sentiments, which in turn are controlled by an intellect that shows them to you today in one manner and tomorrow . . . who knows how? (p. 659)
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The type of people in the group should include members who have both experience with Psychodrama and dual relationships (e.g., spouses, employer-employee), as well as having undergone a satisfactory degree of group warm-up. |
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The size of the group determines the possible potential number of protagonists available (i.e., generally the larger the group, the more time spent on selection). |
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The amount of time available for a typical Psychodrama may be from 2 to 4 hours, but considerations affecting time are the level of awareness of the protagonist, intensity of the emotions, and the complexity of the issue (e.g., murder, rape, suicide). |
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The types of conflict that are shared by more group members produce greater interest and bring more meaning, yet idiosyncratic issues should not be ignored (e.g., Carl Hollander will not work with situations involving murder or suicide, while Krishna Kumar will wait for a time lapse to work on relationship break-ups). |
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The characteristics of the potential protagonist are crucial, for the more ambivalent the group members the poorer the choice, while those with a high awareness level are generally a good choice. Everyone, however, should be given the opportunity. |
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The director's preference is very important, because there must be tele working between the director and protagonist; thus, there needs to be some thought on the part of the director as to preferences. |
Auxiliary Ego
Once the protagonist is determined, he/she will choose auxiliary egos who will play various characters required in the drama. The auxiliary egos are responsible for vitalizing and sharpening the spontaneity of the drama by assuming the projected image of the protagonist. The auxiliary in the role of the significant other becomes a moving force in the Psychodrama. They are extensions of the director, in ". . . the sense that they are social investigators, emotional catalysts, and co-therapists" (Hollander, l971, p. 1). In the protagonist's drama the auxiliary ego acts as a substitute for missing people who are defined by the protagonist. For example, if a protagonist needs a father, mother, sister, wife, lover, daughter, monster, friend, dog, or the voice of an automobile, the auxiliary ego becomes that character or part. Factors such as age, body size, emotion, politics, race, religion, or sex are added or discarded as they are required. While the protagonist gives the role along with a description of how the role is to act, the participant as auxiliary ego is free to use "gut feelings" to intensify or de-intensify feelings. For example, the auxiliary ego feels that more intensity can be added by playing the role of a authoritative father by standing on a chair to make the son feel really "small." Then as the son tries to explain why he had not made the hockey team, the auxiliary ego begins his or her foot. The protagonist might feel more distracted and become angry. The intensity increases and the protagonist can explore not only what it is like to feel helpless, but how he or she might deal with such a "powerful" figure.
Double
The double is a person who physically and emotionally identifies with the protagonist. The protagonist may have difficulty expressing some feelings or doing some things thus it is the double's responsibility to externalize thoughts, feelings, and actions. In a sense, he/she assumes the identity of the protagonist and can intensify or de-intensify emotions. He/she is a supporter of the protagonist by being there with him or her when no one else is there. The double can also influence the protagonist not to act impulsively or destructively, and basically, is focusing on three separate and cooperative levels:
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Mirroring by imitating body language, responding verbally to nonverbal messages, and clarifying mixed messages. |
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Providing the social implications of actions and behavior. |
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Providing the psychological counterparts of interpersonal meanings of the protagonist's dreams, conflicts, fantasies, self-esteem, and values (e.g., being the aggressive part of a mild-mannered person). |
The double may mirror the body language, such as voice, posture, movement, and gestures of the protagonist. On the stage the double goes where the protagonist goes, speaking to the protagonist when necessary or when directed to do so. The double always speaks in the present tense and first person singular. For example, saying: "I am getting really pissed off with her. . ." rather than saying "we are getting really pissed off with her." Early in the drama the double emphasizes emotions. In the latter part, thoughts and concrete data are emphasized. There are a variety of ways in which the double can be utilized. The double can play the protagonist at an earlier age or the "older adult" part of the protagonist. There can be more than one double for the protagonist during the drama. For example, if a protagonist is experiencing conflicting feelings of anger and love, one double can become the angry part, while the other becomes the loving part. In addition, the double can be loving or confrontational for the protagonist particularly if the double has tele and good rapport with the protagonist.
A double is used when the protagonist: is in need of help in expressing thoughts, feelings, and actions; is unaware of how he or she is acting; needs heightened spontaneity or to be warmed up; needs support, understanding, and warmth; is unclear and confused; and needs assistance in accelerating or decelerating the drama in the scene. There are times when the director has to intervene, especially when the actions of the double begins to interfere with the "flow" of the drama. The following scenarios are a few of the reasons shy the director will either remove or correct the double:
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The double's actions interfere with the protagonist's drama because of his or her needs (e.g., the double has a personal need to be aggressive in a situation that requires sensitivity). |
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The protagonist becomes passive and lets the double do his or her "work" (e.g., the double is providing all the actions in an angry confrontation). |
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The protagonist has alienated and lost rapport with the double because of his or her strong feelings or actions (e.g., the double cannot relate to using angry and vulgar words in a situation). |
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The protagonist selects a double who is preoccupied with a personal issue that interferes with the issue of the protagonist (e.g. the double is experiencing his or grief at the expense of the protagonist). |
Audience
Although the audience may seem passive, it exerts crucial influence by providing silent support, a pool of potential participants, and feedback to the protagonist. According to Yablonsky (l981), the director must take responsibility not only for the needs of the protagonist, but also for those of the group. The Psychodrama must be of interest to the group as a whole; otherwise, the needs of the audience will not be met. Paradoxically, I have found that when this occurs the protagonist and other "players" react to them. While the drama is not to play to the audience, the audience, as it is in the theater, is a determining factor in whether the drama will be "successful." Essentially, the audience brings a sense of reality to the Psychodrama, which is invaluable because they are observing the preparation for the drama and the "final production." Hence, their insight is valuable. The protagonist learns about his or her behavior through the reactions of the audience, while getting reassurance, encouragement, and feedback. A drama that does not involve the audience's interest generally influences the action of the "players" and they can be negatively influenced. Will Rogers said it best: "people on the stage can "last" only until they take themselves seriously or their audience takes them seriously."
The Psychodrama Process
The Psychodrama, like any play or story, has a beginning, a middle, and an end. In some psychodramas these stages of development are clear, while in others there seems to be a merging of the parts, in which several climactic episodes occur. The clearest way of understanding the psychodramatic process is through the Hollander Curve (Hollander, l978). This process looks horizontal, yet there is a circular aspect to it, in which the Psychodrama moves in content from ". . . the periphery to the core and [yet] the session should come full circle; back to the present" (Goldman & Morrison, l984, p. 39).
There are three parts to the Psychodrama as outlined in the Hollander Curve (Figure 7.2). The warm-up (A) that involves the whole group getting in touch with their feelings and the selection of a protagonist. The action (B) in which the various scenes of the drama takes place usually culminating shortly after a catharsis. Finally, the sharing and dialoguing (C), in which the audience, director, and other participants share feelings, thoughts, and the giving of feedback to everyone involved. Notice that the catharsis is the most climactic part of the Psychodrama.
The warm-up
The warm-up involves preparing the group for the drama that is to take place (see Figure 7.2). The director may use an activity that focuses the participants on some issue which has some dissonance for someone or may ask for a volunteer who wants to act out the drama. The director helps the protagonist set up the scene to be played, choosing the auxiliary egos that are to be utilized and the place and circumstances to be focused on. Shaffer and Galinsky (1974) provide the following example:
Once the protagonist is on the stage, the director begins to set the scene. Let us take an example of a problem whose central focus is a work difficulty, a conflict between the protagonist and his immediate supervisor. The director should rely as much as possible on the protagonist to give directions on how to play the scene, making certain that the latter provides a description of the situation in which the conflict manifests itself with as much specificity as possible about the setting, how the furniture is arranged, and what other people, if any, are present . . . The auxiliary ego should be chosen by the protagonist whenever possible, but may be chosen by the director, if he [she] knows the members of the group well enough to decide who might fit the roles as prescribed; or they may be selected in consultation of the two. Once all the participants have been chosen, the plot needs to be outlined in somewhat fuller detail. The roles of auxiliary egos have to be explained by the protagonist or the director. (pp. 112-113)
There are a number of methods in warming up the group: encounter and the soiciometric process. In the encounter part, called "begegnung" by Moreno, the director uses a number of techniques that provide for encounters with issues that have some emotion or dissonance for someone. The director could simply ask, "Who wants to work on something?" or he can focus on someone in the group who appears to be experiencing some dissonance. Hollander (1978) says that what the director must be sensitive to in others is the:
. . . "me-me" encounter . . . The individual spontaneously becomes aware of his [her] physiological and psychological readiness. He asks, "What's going on with me?" or "What am I warmed-up to?" . . . the director as
Figure 7.2: The Hollander Curve
catalyst . . . asks "Where am I with you?" and "Where are you with you?" . . . If the director experiences optimal spontaneity at the "me-me" and "me-you" then he [she] is prepared to investigate the sociometry of the group. (pp. 2-3)
If there is no spontaneity from the group, the director, in the warm-up phase, can use a variety of activities to create interaction that will focus the group. Like a "film," a psychodrama needs to interest the group (e.g. "what's going to happen"). The type of activity depends upon the type of group and the creativity of the director. I have used guided fantasy and a number of structured activities such as the "magic shop," "life-boat," and "the family portrait." For example, "the family portrait" involves someone in the group recreating a family portrait with members of the group portraying the aunt, mother, son or best friend at a "wedding." However, the characters are given voices and actions that bring the portrait to "life." If there was any underlying tension, the activity brings it into the open. These type of activities are action oriented, tension packed and have a tendency to confront people with unusual dramatic situations (e.g. "living - dying" or a "life change"). As a result, anxiety or tension that is under the surface generally comes to the forefront.
The soiciometric process is a way to find out what the group wishes to do and how to focus on a theme. It also helps to uncover a protagonist in the group. This is done by starting a discussion and getting feedback from the group on what their goals, needs, and desires are in regard to the Psychodrama. It is similar to the phase warm-up, but does not entail using structured activities. For example, the director could ask the group, "What really "bugs" you about working in organizations?" From the responses, the director could focus on people for whom there seems to be some dissonance. Until a protagonist is chosen, this type of warm-up closely resembles traditional counseling; "What is the problem and can you tell me about it?." As the person describes a situation, a story begins to emerge, which will be translated into a script that is acted out.
Prior to the action part, the stage is set, chairs become an auto or a bed, the auxiliary egos and double(s) are chosen, and everyone has become reasonably comfortable with their roles (see Figure 7.2). The protagonist positions objects on the stage and makes the choice of auxiliary egos and double(s). Without a proper warm-up the emotional level of the audience will be low and people may be bored or disinterested. The protagonist and auxiliary egos will be chosen and the scenes set up for the action stage of the psychodrama. In the beginning the auxiliary ego can be a stereotype or exaggerated character designed to get everyone into the drama. Finally, the warm-up addresses the circumstance of the Psychodrama before the action begins, "What are they doing in this place?."
Action
As the first scene gets under way, the director is assessing the emotional situation of the protagonist. The scene will last until the director has an understanding of the problem and creates an atmosphere of freedom, trust, and experimentation. The information from this initial scene will determine what happens next. In the action part, there may be from one to ten scenes or only one scene to work through the issue. The director uses soliloquy, role-reversal, or dream enactment to develop the drama and move it toward a climax with the goal of helping the protagonist experience a catharsis. As the script proceeds, the protagonist, according to Moreno (l953):
. . . warms up to the figures and [in this] . . . private world he [she] attains satisfactions which take him [her] far beyond anything [yet] . . . experienced; he [she] has invested so much . . . limited energy in the images of his [her] perceptions . . . which live a foreign existence within; . . . delusions and hallucinations of all sorts, that he [she] has lost a great deal of spontaneity, productivity and power . . . they have taken his [her] riches away and he [she] has become poor, weak and sick . . . [in the action, there is] reinvestment . . . by actually living through the role of father, employer, spouse, enemies . . . and [learning] from them letting go of their power and magic. (pp. 447-448)
There may be resistance to working through the issue or repeating some of the scenes, but the director continues to work for that elicited moment in which everything starts to fall into place. Everyone has a need to play--we need to enact life. Once the apex or climax of emotion has been reached the director works towards closure. No further exploration occurs, only the integration of feelings, thoughts, and actions from the presented material. The direction of the scenes depends on the creativity of the director who chooses the methods that lead to further exploration of the protagonist. Thus, the director needs to "feel" and "see" what the protagonist has difficulty feeling or thinking.
During the action the process is sometimes confusing, because everything is constantly in flux. The scene changes, participants are given new lines and new roles may be introduced into the "story." Therefore, it is important that the director not only be flexible, but aware of the limitations of the script. Once the climax, at the final stage of action has been reached, some kind of resolution should take place. The psychodrama doesn't necessarily have to have a positive ending, but it should have an ending that provides hope, insight, and a means for living life in a more satisfactory way. The director confronts the protagonist who must discover answers and bring about some kind of resolution. The best way to do this is through debriefing the protagonist and the other "actors." Feelings, thoughts, and particularly meaning needs to be addressed. While the protagonist will review and think about the experience later, they should not be left with intense feelings. Often, letting everyone express how they felt during the process rectifies this. The protagonist, however, needs to answer these questions:
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What is he or she going to do with what has been learned? |
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Is any rehearsal or practice scene required? |
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Are the corrective and alternative ways of behavior clear? |
Sharing
The sharing is the final closure for the group as well as for the protagonist . . . this takes place when the action portion has concluded for the protagonist . . who returns to the group . . .who is now asked to share some- thing of themselves, of their own lives, their own feelings, as they relate to the experience of the protagonist. (Goldman & Morrison, l984, pp. 6-7)
Sharing or feedback is the place where everyone, particularly the protagonist, can get another view of the drama. Even those who played "bit parts" in the "story" may get feedback on something that they did or said that had meaning. In a sense, the sharing is like "drama critics" who provide feedback to the protagonist not on the performance, but meaning on the actions. The director helps the group share their feedback by paraphrasing or clarifying what is being said. The director draws out meaning, supports those sharing, and encourages responses, "You seem to be moved by something in the script, is there anything you would like to share?" The director does not necessarily have to ask for volunteers, although that is best. He or she may ask for feedback from some members of the group or audience who seemed particularly involved.
Sharing is an important part of Psychodrama, because it not only provides the opportunity to give and receive feedback, but instills a sense of personal responsibility. Goldman and Morrison (1984) go on to stress that sharing also reinforces the idea that everyone:
...is responsible for his/her choices in life . . . for people avoid talking about the good they do, the values they hold, the aspirations they have. Perhaps one of the principal reasons ...is that the good men do is often not unadulterated good. We have goals but we fall short of them . . . Thus it is very difficult to talk about the "best in me" without also talking about the "worst in me." (p. 69)
Once the group has completed its sharing, the director shares by entering into a dialogue with the protagonist, a summary of the feedback from the group, the memorable aspects of the Psychodrama, and his or her observations. The purpose of this is to help the protagonist integrate the insights gained from the Psychodrama into a new way of being and living. The director has to be careful that the ending of the Psychodrama is not contrived so it is a happy one, for some situations are painful and difficult. The task of the director is to help the protagonist make sense of the Psychodrama in a supportive and encouraging manner.
Psychodrama Methods
Soliloquy, mirroring, role reversal, physicaliation, future-projection, and surplus reality are the five primary methods used in Psychodrama (Figure 7.3). These methods can be used at any time during the drama when the director feels that something needs to be highlighted, stressed or explored further. The key in using these methods effectively is expressed in Moreno's (l953) dictum: don't tell what happened, show me! The director can also use other methods such as non-verbal interactions, art activities, awareness activities, dream enactment, guided imagery or dialoguing with a significant person in the protagonist's life.
Soliloquy
Soliloquy is a method in which the protagonist steps out of the role and scene and speaks directly to the audience. It can be useful for expressing hidden feelings or thoughts about a particular person or situation. Yablonsky (l981) says that it is:
. . . often parallel to his [her] overt actions. For example, a person overtly expressing love and affection may be feeling love and affection. At other times, however, a person expressing love overtly may be feeling subjective hatred, and this will be expressed in the soliloquy. (p. 121)
I have found the soliloquy useful when the protagonist expresses some feelings or thoughts that have some incongruence or if he or she has a need for immediate feedback. For example, the protagonist may be expressing some anger towards a parent, yet there does not seem to be any anger in his or her voice in a current scene. When the protagonist speaks to the audience, he or she may be freer in expressing thoughts or feelings, than in a face-to-face encounter with the auxiliary ego role playing the parent. The soliloquy serves to emphasize and bring the anger to the forefront.
Mirroring
Mirroring is the method of doing everything the protagonist is doing, including using body language (e.g., posture and voice tone), verbal language, and action. The purpose of mirroring is to provide the protagonist with an idea of how he or she is coming across. Mirroring can be used with one behavior or a whole scene. For example, all the actions are mirrored, thus providing the protagonist an image of what he or she may be doing. This is a useful method when the protagonist is sending double messages, saying one thing, but doing another, needs a model to practice a new behavior, or is unsure of what to do in the scene. It can be done by anyone, including the director, someone from the audience, or the double.
Role Reversal
Role reversal is the heart of the Psychodrama process, because it helps the protagonist develop empathy for others and reduces egocentric behavior. A role reversal occurs when the protagonist changes roles with someone else. In a sense, this method is a skill that is taught to the protagonist in everyday life. The art of effective communication, is being able to put oneself in the "other person's shoes." For example, in a past group Sheila and Kathy had a disagreement which seemed very much on the surface. The more they discussed the issue, the more they smiled, and seemed to mask their differing points of view. I asked Sheila to role play Kathy and take her point of view and Kathy to role play Sheila. Kathy (in the part of Sheila) began to be overly critical and put down Sheila (in the part of Kathy). In turn, Sheila (in the part of Kathy) began to return anger, and told Kathy (in the Sheila role) to stop being so "pushy." As a result, both Kathy and Sheila were able to be more expressive in their roles and were able to say things that they were unable to say in their original discussion. Both began to have a better understanding of each other's point of view and speak in a more open manner. It seemed that the emotion expressed in the role reversal made it easier for them to express feelings. A role reversal can be used for a number of reasons:
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A protagonist plays the role of the relevant other (e.g., daughter becomes the mother) . . . in order to understand the other person's position. |
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Role reversal may be used to help the protagonist see himself [herself] as if in a mirror . . . the daughter playing the role of the mother will see herself through the mother's perception. |
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Role reversal is often effective in augmenting the spontaneity of the protagonist by shifting him [her] out of defenses . . . that changes the conflict and produces new insights. |
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Role reversal is often used simply to help an auxiliary ego to better understand how a role is perceived by a protagonist. (Yablonsky, l981, pp. 116-117) |
Physicalization
Physicalization is a method of heightening the awareness of the protagonist by portraying the interactions in a physical manner. For example, if the protagonist is conversing with a demanding and authoritative father, the director could ask the auxiliary ego to stand on a chair when talking. The protagonist would always have to look up and be in the position of a "small" and weak child. This intensification can make it easier for everyone to visualize and understand the feelings of the protagonist. Another way that Physicalization can be used is by having someone be an object (e.g., a mountain that has to be climbed or books that have to be read). When the protagonist is "torn" by conflicting feelings or thoughts, the director can have the doubles be the conflicting parts, with each part trying to pull the protagonist in different directions. This can result in a catharsis as the protagonist has to do something about the dilemma.
Future-Projection Technique
The future-projection technique is valuable when the protagonist wants to rehearse a newly learned behavior or experiment with a different way of acting in situations in which he or she expects to be in. For example, I have used this technique to help a protagonist try out her assertiveness skills with people who use "put-downs." As a result she was able to have a better sense of how to use her new skills in a variety of ways. The group assisted by playing out possible scenarios that were novel to her and the rest of the group. It turned out that a very assertive approach worked well with one kind of person, such as an insensitive type, but a more open approach worked better with a more sensitive type (e.g., "When you do that, I feel really sad. I just don't want to be around someone like that"). She had not thought of assertiveness as being open with feelings, only as having a strong retort.
Surplus Reality
Surplus reality helps transcend the boundaries of the "real world" of the protagonist. Anything from dialoguing with the "unborn" to dialoguing with the "dead" can be enacted. In a sense, Psychodrama is based on the idea that truth is not only what happens, but what the protagonist thinks happened. Surplus reality takes the protagonist to situations that provide insight or to experience what could be. It is used when the protagonist wants to transcend what is real and do something which is impossible. A person can go back to the past or forward into the future and talk to someone. The purpose of the surplus reality is to help the protagonist experience new insights by doing or being something totally different. Surplus reality can be an act fulfillment or reenactment of a traumatic situation in which the protagonist can take corrective action. An abused person can "face" the abuser and take actions that are more protective. Outcomes to situations can be changed to bring about more satisfactory results.
Conclusion
But don't you see that the whole trouble lies here? In words, words. Each one of us has within him a whole world of things, each man of us his own special world. And how can we ever come to an understanding if I put the words I utter the sense and value of things as I see them; while you who listen to me must inevitably translate them according to the conception of things each one of you has within himself. We think we understand each other, but we never really do. (Pirandello, l943, p. 631)
Once again the insight in Pirandello's play, "Six Characters In Search of an Author", because what he emphasized was so true - its impossible to really understand others. Consider, even in one's most empathic manner, do facilitators really understand what it is people are trying to say in therapy? Words by themselves are inadequate, but with action and drama, one has a better idea of what others might mean when they communicate. The technique of role playing is one of the most powerful methods for understanding what people are communicating. This is what makes Psychodrama such an exciting and creative method of resolving interpersonal and group problems. Since Psychodrama is a fluid process and accepts the notion of surplus reality combined with a creative process allows, participants can act or dance their way into realms of the "spirit world." The process, in the spirit of the Transpersonal approach, is open and accepting of anything that can be helpful. Accordingly:
...the psychological systems which invent terms like "disorder" for conditions [such as depression]...are essentially repressive. They carry the constant implication that whatever does not conform must be stiffed...the goal is the liberation of the spirit. We must always be careful that we do not inadvertently fostering those trends which would reduce people to machines (Brazier ,l995, p. 174).
From a cross-cultural perspective the Psychodrama process parallels the Salish Winter Spirit dance in format, structure and outcomes. Consider that in the Spirit dance, the ritualist, declares after the initiation dance that: "now everybody knows him [her], before nobody knew him [her]" (Jilek, l988, p. 94). The dancers as protagonist, have been reborn, with awareness and knowledge, that they did not possess before. From now on, the dancers are more in touch with their "guardian spirit", who provides protection, good luck, success, and support. The "spirit guardians" have as one of their powers, to guide people in following the rules of "good" behavior. That is, those who act in an irresponsible manner will be punished, while those acting in a responsible manner will be rewarded. And by being active as dancers, the body stays fit, and helps lift depression. Finally, the dance promotes not only spiritual well-being, but physical well-being.
While it seems like a lot of emphasis is on problem resolution, the Psychodrama theater can also be ". . . a simple direct session in a microcosmic form of a macrocosmic philosophical issue in a society" (Yablonsky, l981, p. 25). The process of resolution does not have to be dramatic either. Sometimes people need to process what has happened in the psychodrama by thinking it through outside the group. While something may seem obvious to the group, the protagonist may need time to draw meaning. This is the nature of working issues through by creating their own stage, actors, props, direction and expression. This provides people with an opportunity to realize that everything fantasized can be owned and gives them a chance to see conflicts inside.
The variety of issues and methods that can be used in a psychodrama depend on the director, the level of functioning of the protagonist, and the type of group. Yablonsky (l981) emphasizes that ". . . techniques and methods are adapted as the group dictates; they do not dictate to the group" (p. 127). It is possible in psychodrama to create or alter situations, because experimenting is one of the best ways to increase understanding. The strength of psychodrama is the emphasis on reenacting and re-experiencing traumatic and painful experiences that still burden and stifle spontaneity. By reliving past events, they can be "put to rest" and resolved, then new behaviors can be practiced and rehearsed. Pirandello (l943) felt that for many people this:
. . . self-binding seems much more "human"; but the contrary is true. For people never reason so much and become so introspective as when they suffer; since they are anxious to get at the cause of their sufferings... to learn who has produced them, and whether it is just or unjust that they should have to bear them. (p. 659)
Activities
1. Mirroring: After choosing a partner, stand facing each other (approximately 2 or 3 feet apart). After deciding who goes first, portray a variety of feelings and accompanying actions, which have to be mirrored by the partner. No words or dialogue should be used. For example, a person could portray a series of events like the birth of an imaginary child (e.g. the first 5 minutes of life might consist of peace - pain - surprise - shock - anger - satisfaction, etc.). After 5 minutes, switch places and mirror the actions. Feedback should follow in which the partners share their feelings, thoughts and perceptions of what they were trying to portray and mirror (approximately 15 minutes). A variation of this activity is providing the group with topics to mirror (e.g. getting fired from work, a marriage proposal, death of a friend, winning the lottery, etc.).
2. Life Boat: Make a circle on the floor which represents a life boat, adrift in the middle of the ocean. Set the scene by telling the group in the life boat that they have only enough food and water for all but one of the group. In order for the group to survive another day, one person will have to be sacrificed, otherwise no one will be saved. The group can come up with any number of solutions to the problem. After the decision, the group is informed that they survived another day, but because of the deteriorating weather they will have to decide once again who will be sacrificed. Other circumstances can be injected into the scenario to produce the same effect (e.g. someone has to be eliminated). This can be continued until half the group is left or until only one person is left. This activity works best with approximately 9 people maximum and 3 people minimum. After the activity, a discussion should follow. The discussion can explore a number of issues: decision making process; leadership; or personal feelings (anger, fear, rejection, distrust, depression, etc.). There is a great deal of tension in an activity like this, so a great deal of sensitivity should be exercised.
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